Unit 1 - Teaching Aptitude
Concept and Definitions of Teaching
Teaching is a complex process with multiple dimensions:
A communication process between two or more persons involving mutual influence and learning
The act of filling the learner’s mind with information and knowledge for future use
A systematic organization of learners, teachers, curriculum and other variables to achieve predetermined goals
An integral part of education that imparts knowledge, develops understanding and skills
Scholar Definitions:
H.C. Morrison: “An intimate contact between a more mature personality and less mature one designed to further the education of the latter”
N.L. Gage: “A form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of another person”
B.D. Smith: “A system of actions intended to induce learning”
Albert Einstein: “A supreme art to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge”
Nature of Teaching
Key inherent characteristics:
Dynamic, Social and Humane: Influenced by changing social and human factors
Both Art and Science:
Art: Requires talent and creativity
Science: Involves systematic techniques and procedures that can be studied and improved
Diverse Application: Takes various forms (formal, informal, instructional, training, etc.)
System of Actions: Varied actions related to content and student behavior under physical/social conditions
Professional Activity: Involves teacher-student interaction for personality development
Interactive Process: Dominated by communication skills with clear purpose/objectives
Subject to Analysis: Can be assessed and improved through feedback
Specialized Task: Requires specific skills to achieve objectives
Collection of Modes: Includes (but not limited to) conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination
Lesson Plan Format: Follows 6E+S structure (detailed below)
The 6E+S Lesson Plan Format
Engage:
Connects past and present learning
Uses key questions to direct research
Explore:
Students investigate thoroughly
Encourages free exploration with minimal direction
Explain:
Students articulate concepts
Teacher introduces formal terms and definitions
Elaborate:
Students demonstrate application
Present findings/conclusions
Evaluate:
Teacher assesses learning outcomes
Extend:
Takes students beyond the lesson
Builds on student excitement
Standards:
Aligns with state/provincial/national standards
Integrated lesson-by-lesson
Objectives of Teaching
Teaching has psychological and philosophical foundations. Key objectives:
Bloom’s Taxonomy:
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge → Comprehension → Application → Analysis → Synthesis → Evaluation
Affective Domain: Receiving → Responding → Valuing → Organizing → Characterizing
Psychomotor Domain: Observing → Imitating → Practicing → Adapting → Naturalizing
Gagne and Briggs Model:
Verbal Information
Intellectual Skills
Cognitive Skills
Motor Skills
Attitudes
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The models are named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee that devised the taxonomy. The three domains are:
Cognitive Domain (Knowledge-Based)
1. Knowledge: Recognizing or remembering facts, terms, or basic concepts.
2. Comprehension: Demonstrating understanding by organizing, comparing, interpreting, or summarizing.
3. Application: Using acquired knowledge to solve problems by applying facts, techniques, or rules.
4. Analysis: Breaking information into parts, determining relationships, and finding supporting evidence.
5. Synthesis: Combining diverse elements to form a new structure or pattern.
6. Evaluation: Making judgments based on criteria, defending opinions, or assessing validity.
Affective Domain (Emotion-Based)
1. Receiving: Awareness and willingness to hear new information.
2. Responding: Active participation in learning.
3. Valuing: Assigning worth or importance to learned knowledge.
4. Organising: Integrating values, information, and ideas into a coherent system.
5. Characterising: Internalizing values to shape behavior or worldview.
Psychomotor Domain (Action-Based)
1. Observing: Actively attending to a physical event.
2. Imitating: Attempting to copy a physical behavior.
3. Practicing: Repeating a physical activity to improve.
4. Adapting: Fine-tuning skills for precision.
5. Naturalisation: Automating skills and adapting them to new situations.
Gagne and Briggs Model
This model categorizes learning objectives into:
Verbal Information: Stating acquired knowledge.
Intellectual Skills: Problem-solving using rules (e.g., concept learning, rule learning).
Cognitive Skills: Creating rules for problem-solving and improving learning/thinking methods.
Motor Skills: Physical actions involving the brain, nervous system, and muscles.
Attitudes: Internal states influencing behavior.
Levels of Teaching
Memory Level of Teaching (MLT)
Exponent: Herbart.
Focus: Rote memorization of facts.
Steps:
Preparation: Testing prior knowledge.
Statement of Aim: Introducing the topic.
Presentation: Encouraging self-learning.
Association: Linking facts through comparison.
Generalisation: Formulating principles.
Application: Using knowledge in new situations.
Understanding Level of Teaching
Exponent: Morrison.
Prerequisite: Memory Level.
Focus: Grasping generalizations, principles, and facts.
Steps:
Presentation: Content delivery and diagnosis.
Exploration: Testing prior knowledge and analyzing content.
Assimilation: Generalizing, lab/library work, content tests.
Organisation: Opportunities for representation.
Recitation: Oral presentation by students.
Evaluation: Written/oral tests, essay/objective questions.
Reflective Level of Teaching
Exponent: Hunt.
Focus: Problem-solving, critical thinking, and hypothesis testing.
Steps:
Creating a problematic situation.
Formulating hypotheses.
Verifying hypotheses through data collection.
Testing hypotheses.
Evaluation: Essay-type tests, assessing attitudes and involvement.
Characteristics of Teaching
Teaching is a skill-oriented process influenced by human activities. Its characteristics include:
Treats learners with respect and care.
Gives significance to shared information and ideas.
Creates a comfortable classroom environment.
Has specific objectives to achieve.
A system of actions related to content, learner behavior, and social/physical conditions.
Highly dependent on communication skills.
Basic Requirements of Teaching
Teaching involves interaction and requires:
Variables of Teaching
Dependent Variable (Student): Learner whose development depends on teaching.
Independent Variable (Teacher): Plans, organizes, and controls teaching.
Intervening Variable (Curriculum): Includes content, methods, strategies, and institutional setup.
Role of Infrastructure
Essential components: School buildings, classrooms, playgrounds, libraries.
Requirements: Spacious, well-ventilated classrooms, well-equipped labs.
Additional facilities: Extracurricular workshops, sanitation, assembly areas.
Teacher-Learner Relationship
A positive relationship is crucial because it:
Promotes school belonging and cooperative participation.
Builds student confidence and reduces fear of failure.
Helps teachers guide students in motivation and goal-setting.
Encourages academic and personal growth.
Requires time and effort but benefits both parties immensely.
Learner
A person acquiring knowledge or skills through study or teaching.
Dependent and immature; must cooperate with teachers.
Categories: Primary, elementary, college, university students.
Learner’s Characteristics
Personal Characteristics: Age, gender, cultural background, socio-economic status.
Academic Characteristics: Education level, learning ability, knowledge.
Adolescents: Enthusiastic if they understand learning’s value.
Adults: Goal-oriented, aware of learning’s importance.
Cognitive Characteristics: Memory, problem-solving, intellectual skills.
Adolescents: Shift from concrete to abstract thinking.
Adults: Autonomous and self-directed.
Social Characteristics: Assimilation potential, peer interactions.
Adolescents: Seek peer approval, sensitive to rejection.
Adults: Prefer learning communities, balance multiple responsibilities.
Motivational/Emotional Characteristics:
Adolescents: Mood swings, desire independence.
Adults: Prefer control, may face anxiety or anger affecting learning.
Learning
A natural process leading to behavioral change.
Studied in educational psychology, neuropsychology, etc.
May be conscious or unconscious.
Results from reinforced practice (stimulus-response).
Individual Differences
Definition: Variations among individuals in physical, mental, or behavioral traits.
Quotes:
Drever James: Deviations from group averages in mental/physical traits.
Skinner: Any measurable aspect of personality.
C.V. Good: Totality of traits distinguishing individuals.
Types:
Physical, intelligence, attitudes, achievement, motor ability, gender-based differences.
Causes:
Heredity, Race/Nationality, Age, Environment, Gender, Education.
Characteristics of Teaching, Teacher-Learner Relationship, Learner Characteristics, Learning, and Individual Differences
Characteristics of Teaching
Teaching is a skill-oriented process influenced by human activities. Its characteristics include:
Treats learners with respect and care.
Gives significance to shared information and ideas.
Creates a comfortable classroom environment.
Has specific objectives to achieve.
A system of actions related to content, learner behavior, and social/physical conditions.
Highly dependent on communication skills.
Basic Requirements of Teaching
Teaching involves interaction and requires:
Variables of Teaching
Dependent Variable (Student): Learner whose development depends on teaching.
Independent Variable (Teacher): Plans, organizes, and controls teaching.
Intervening Variable (Curriculum): Includes content, methods, strategies, and institutional setup.
Role of Infrastructure
Essential components: School buildings, classrooms, playgrounds, libraries.
Requirements: Spacious, well-ventilated classrooms, well-equipped labs.
Additional facilities: Extracurricular workshops, sanitation, assembly areas.
Teacher-Learner Relationship
A positive relationship is crucial because it:
Promotes school belonging and cooperative participation.
Builds student confidence and reduces fear of failure.
Helps teachers guide students in motivation and goal-setting.
Encourages academic and personal growth.
Requires time and effort but benefits both parties immensely.
Learner
A person acquiring knowledge or skills through study or teaching.
Dependent and immature; must cooperate with teachers.
Categories: Primary, elementary, college, university students.
Learner’s Characteristics
Personal Characteristics: Age, gender, cultural background, socio-economic status.
Academic Characteristics: Education level, learning ability, knowledge.
Adolescents: Enthusiastic if they understand learning’s value.
Adults: Goal-oriented, aware of learning’s importance.
Cognitive Characteristics: Memory, problem-solving, intellectual skills.
Adolescents: Shift from concrete to abstract thinking.
Adults: Autonomous and self-directed.
Social Characteristics: Assimilation potential, peer interactions.
Adolescents: Seek peer approval, sensitive to rejection.
Adults: Prefer learning communities, balance multiple responsibilities.
Motivational/Emotional Characteristics:
Adolescents: Mood swings, desire independence.
Adults: Prefer control, may face anxiety or anger affecting learning.
Learning
A natural process leading to behavioral change.
Studied in educational psychology, neuropsychology, etc.
May be conscious or unconscious.
Results from reinforced practice (stimulus-response).
Individual Differences
Definition: Variations among individuals in physical, mental, or behavioral traits.
Quotes:
Drever James: Deviations from group averages in mental/physical traits.
Skinner: Any measurable aspect of personality.
C.V. Good: Totality of traits distinguishing individuals.
Types:
Physical, intelligence, attitudes, achievement, motor ability, gender-based differences.
Causes:
Heredity, Race/Nationality, Age, Environment, Gender, Education.
Factors Affecting Teaching
1. Teacher’s Attitude
Teaching quality depends on the teacher’s love, dedication, and devotion to the subject.
Lack of confidence (due to poor conceptual clarity) negatively impacts teaching.
Incoherence between classroom behavior and teaching beliefs affects effectiveness.
Low expectations for students from disadvantaged backgrounds lead to poor teaching outcomes.
How to Improve Teacher’s Attitude:
Address physical, mental, and emotional well-being.
Provide training to meet diverse student needs in inclusive classrooms.
Design professional development programs tailored to school/community needs.
Encourage flexibility in lesson planning.
2. Learner’s Attitude
Negative attitudes disrupt learning; positive attitudes enhance engagement.
Participative, attentive, curious, and cooperative learners create a productive environment.
Collaborative skills foster a democratic classroom, easing management for teachers.
3. Institutional/Administrative Set-up
Healthy environment requires freedom for teachers in lesson planning and teaching aids.
Vertical supervision (hierarchy) and horizontal accountability (peer/community involvement) are key.
Clear teacher roles within governance parameters prevent confusion.
Avoid administrative pressure while maintaining discipline.
Balance relationships among teachers, students, parents, and staff.
4. Teacher Training & Experience
Continuous training improves teaching skills, knowledge, and technology integration.
Helps teachers understand cognitive domains and adapt teaching methods.
Experience deepens knowledge and enhances problem-solving flexibility.
5. Economic Factors
Infrastructure: Essential amenities (furniture, buildings, toilets, playgrounds).
Teacher salaries: Better pay and incentives boost motivation.
Student facilities: Scholarships, libraries, and study materials encourage participation.
6. Teaching-Learning Environment
Psychological & Instructional Perspectives:
Learner must be active and comply with behavioral expectations.
Respect for self and others is critical for a quality environment.
Teachers should address psychological needs and set clear academic/behavioral expectations.
7. Support Material
Includes textbooks, journals, magazines—must be relevant and effective for knowledge transmission.
8. Instructional Facilities
Teaching aids: Traditional (charts), modern (projectors), and ICT-based (TV, internet).
Enhances engagement and effectiveness.
9. Classroom Management
Requires a relaxed, pleasant, and disruption-free climate.
Teachers provide a nurturing, engaging environment to maximize learning.
Summary Table of Factors Affecting Teaching
| Factor | Key Points |
|---|---|
| Teacher’s Attitude | Dedication, confidence, training, flexibility. |
| Learner’s Attitude | Participation, curiosity, cooperation. |
| Administrative Set-up | Freedom for teachers, clear roles, balanced relationships. |
| Teacher Training | Continuous improvement, technology use, cognitive understanding. |
| Economic Factors | Infrastructure, salaries, student facilities. |
| Learning Environment | Active learners, respect, clear expectations. |
| Support Material | Quality textbooks/journals. |
| Instructional Aids | Traditional/modern/ICT tools. |
| Classroom Management | Nurturing, organized, engaging. |
Methods of Teaching in Higher Education
1. Classification of Teaching Methods
Teaching methods are broadly categorized into:
Teacher-Centered Methods
Lecture Method
Demonstration Method
Biographical Method
Historical/Banking Method
Team-Teaching Method
Learner-Centered Methods
Laboratory Method
Project Method
Assignment Method
Discussion Method
Brainstorming Method
Seminar Method
2. Teacher-Centered Methods
(a) Lecture Method
Description: One-way communication where the teacher delivers information, and students passively listen.
Purpose: Motivation, clarification, review, and expansion of knowledge.
Merits:
Efficient for large classes.
Develops language and listening skills.
Teacher controls information flow precisely.
Demerits:
Low retention and attention span.
No student participation or feedback.
Ignores individual differences.
(b) Demonstration Method
Description: Visual presentation of processes by the teacher or students.
Principles:
“Learning by doing.”
Skill development through imitation.
Applications: Technical institutes, teacher training, science/arts education.
Merits:
Engages students visually.
Achieves psychomotor and cognitive goals.
Cost-effective.
Demerits:
Limited by lack of resources.
Minimal learner participation.
Requires high precision.
(c) Biographical Method
Description: Uses biographies to analyze authors’ lives inductively.
Merits:
Addresses pedagogical challenges in higher education.
Suitable for advanced learners.
Demerits:
Risks personal discomfort for students.
Potential misuse of criminological theories.
(d) Historical/Banking Method
Description: Presents topics chronologically; knowledge is “deposited” by teachers.
Merits:
Builds foundational knowledge.
Enhances speaking skills.
Demerits:
Confusing for weaker students.
Neglects writing skills.
3. Learner-Centered Methods
(a) Laboratory Method
Hands-on experiments to apply theoretical knowledge.
(b) Project Method
Students solve real-world problems collaboratively.
(c) Discussion Method
Encourages critical thinking through peer dialogue.
(d) Seminar Method
Expert-led discussions on specialized topics.
4. Comparative Analysis
| Method | Focus | Student Role | Best For |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lecture | Content Delivery | Passive | Large classes |
| Demonstration | Visual Learning | Observers | Technical skills |
| Biographical | Critical Analysis | Inductive | Higher education |
| Discussion | Peer Interaction | Active | Critical thinking |
Teaching Methods in Higher Education
1. Team Teaching (Collaborative Teaching)
Definition: A group of instructors working cooperatively to teach students, sharing responsibilities for course design, delivery, and evaluation.
Process:
Teachers set goals, design syllabi, and prepare lesson plans collectively.
Emphasizes interaction between teachers and students.
Involves mutual evaluation (teachers assess students; students evaluate teachers).
Merits:
Exposes students to diverse expertise.
Encourages creativity and community among teachers.
Economical in time and energy.
Demerits:
Requires multiple teachers.
Limited applicability across subjects.
Demands extensive planning.
2. Micro Teaching
Definition: A scaled-down teaching practice focusing on specific skills in a controlled environment (developed by Dwight W. Allen).
Cycle:
Plan → 2. Teach → 3. Feedback → 4. Re-plan → 5. Re-teach → 6. Reflect
Principles:
Realistic teaching with a focus on one skill at a time.
Controlled practice with immediate feedback.
Purpose: Builds confidence and refines teaching techniques through peer feedback.
3. Learner-Centered Methods
(a) Laboratory Method
Definition: Hands-on experimentation with raw data to solve problems.
Merits:
Develops scientific attitudes and practical skills.
Suitable for small groups.
Demerits:Limited to science-based subjects.
Requires specialized equipment.
(b) Project Method
Philosophy: Pragmatism (“learning by doing”).
Types of Projects: Constructive, Aesthetic, Problematic, Drill.
Merits:
Promotes experiential learning and scientific inquiry.
Enhances student autonomy.
Demerits:Time-consuming; prone to uncontrolled variables.
Requires meticulous supervision.
(c) Assignment Method
Process: Guided self-learning with research and report writing.
Precautions:
Align assignments with curriculum.
Ensure resource availability.
Merits:Fosters research skills and independence.
Demerits:Risk of plagiarism.
Burdensome for slow learners.
(d) Discussion Method
Steps: Orientation → Engagement → Debrief.
Merits:
Encourages critical thinking and maturity.
Student-driven learning.
Demerits:Dominance by a few participants.
Time-intensive.
(e) Brainstorming Method
Purpose: Group creativity to generate ideas (popularized by Alex Osborn).
Rules: No criticism during idea generation.
Merits:
Inclusive and economical.
Demerits:Potential for arguments.
Lacks systematic evaluation.
(f) Seminar Method
Format: Expert-led discussions on specialized topics.
Merits:
Access to expert knowledge.
Networking opportunities.
Demerits:Risk of misinformation.
Costly and time-consuming.
4. Comparative Summary
| Method | Key Feature | Advantages | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Team Teaching | Collaborative instruction | Diverse expertise; efficient | Requires coordination |
| Micro Teaching | Skill-specific practice | Builds confidence; feedback-driven | Artificial setting |
| Laboratory | Hands-on experiments | Practical skills development | Limited to sciences |
| Project | Real-world problem-solving | Experiential learning | Time-intensive |
| Discussion | Peer dialogue | Critical thinking | Dominance by few members |
| Seminar | Expert presentations | High-quality knowledge | Expensive |
Teaching Methods and Aids
1. Off-line vs. On-line Teaching Methods
| Aspect | Off-line (Traditional) | On-line (Modern) |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Teacher/student-centric methods without ICT. | Technology-based methods using digital platforms. |
| Examples | Lecture, Demonstration, Project Method. | SWAYAM, MOOCs, SWAYAMPRABHA. |
| Advantages | Face-to-face interaction; established practices. | Flexible, accessible, cost-effective. |
| Limitations | Limited reach; rigid schedules. | Requires digital literacy; internet dependency. |
2. Online Teaching Platforms
(a) SWAYAM
Full Form: Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds.
Launch: 2017 by the Government of India.
Objective: Promote access, equity, and quality education via MOOCs.
Features:
Free courses for school (9th+) to professional levels.
Four quadrants: Video lectures, downloadable readings, self-assessment tests, discussion forums.
Providers: IITs, IIMs, Central Universities.
(b) SWAYAMPRABHA
Type: 32 DTH channels for 24/7 educational content.
Content:
Higher education (UG/PG).
School education (9th–12th).
Competitive exam preparation.
Repeat Telecasts: 4-hour new content repeated 5 times daily.
(c) MOOCs
Full Form: Massive Open Online Courses.
Key Providers:
NPTEL (India, free).
Coursera/edX (USA, paid/free).
Udemy (Global, paid).
Features: Video lectures, peer interaction, certification.
3. Teaching Aids (Support Systems)
Categories
Visual Aids (Traditional):
Examples: Blackboard, Bulletin Boards, Real Objects, Maps, Graphs.
Purpose: Enhance visual learning and engagement.
Audio Aids (Modern):
Examples: Radio, Tape Recorder, Gramophone.
Purpose: Improve listening skills and language correction.
Audio-Visual Aids (ICT-Based):
Examples: TV, Computer, Films, Multimedia.
Purpose: Multi-sensory learning for better retention.
Significance of Teaching Aids
Motivation: Sparks student interest.
Concept Clarity: Provides concrete examples.
Retention: Reduces reliance on rote learning.
Vocabulary: Expands language skills.
Effective Use Guidelines
Align with lesson objectives.
Match students’ cognitive levels.
Ensure simplicity and relevance.
Evaluation System in Education
1. Definition and Purpose of Evaluation
Definition: Systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to determine the extent of student achievement (Gronlund & Linn).
Objectives:
Diagnose student weaknesses.
Predict future achievement.
Assess skill and attitude development.
Improve teacher-student-community relations.
2. Steps in the Evaluation Process
Purpose: Define the goal (e.g., diagnostic, formative, summative).
Audience: Identify stakeholders (students, teachers, parents).
Resources: Allocate tools (tests, surveys, interviews).
Evidence: Collect data (quantitative/qualitative).
Data-gathering: Use multiple techniques (exams, observations).
Analysis: Interpret outcomes.
Reporting: Share results with stakeholders.
3. Importance of Evaluation
Ensures Learning: Provides feedback to monitor progress.
Enhances Teaching: Aligns instruction with learning objectives.
Creates Quality Environment:
Learner-Centred: Focuses on student needs.
Knowledge-Centred: Promotes deep understanding.
Assessment-Centred: Matches goals with feedback.
Community-Centred: Connects school with broader society.
4. Techniques of Evaluation
Quantitative Techniques
Written Exams: Short, long, and essay-type questions.
Oral Exams: Tests pronunciation/reading skills.
Practical Exams: Evaluates hands-on skills (e.g., science labs).
Qualitative Techniques
Interviews: Open-ended questions to understand perspectives.
Observation: Records behavior/interactions.
Checklists/Rating Scales: Tracks progress over time.
Cumulative Records: Includes anecdotal notes and diaries.
5. Types of Evaluation
| Type | Purpose | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Formative | Ongoing feedback to improve learning/teaching. | Quizzes, peer reviews, class discussions. |
| Summative | Assess final achievement at course/term end. | Final exams, standardized tests. |
| Diagnostic | Identify persistent learning difficulties and plan remediation. | Pre-tests, specialized assessments. |
Key Differences:
Formative: Focus on improvement during instruction.
Summative: Focus on outcomes for certification/grading.
Diagnostic: Focus on root causes of learning gaps.
6. Assessment vs. Evaluation
Assessment: Measures effectiveness (e.g., test scores).
Evaluation: Judges value against standards (e.g., pass/fail).
7. Significance of Evaluation
Guides instructional material design.
Validates teaching methods.
Strengthens teacher-parent collaboration.
Tailors learning to individual needs.
1. Elements of an Effective Evaluation System
An effective evaluation system includes the following research-based elements:
Research-Based Performance Targets
Clearly defined, proven targets to improve student performance through teacher excellence.
Multiple Sources of Evidence
Combines end-of-year tests with other measures (e.g., observations, lesson plans, student work) for reliability.
Constructive Feedback for Teachers
Timely, formal/informal feedback using diverse evidence (e.g., classroom observations, student performance analysis).
Standardized Evaluator Training
Ensures fair, accurate ratings through training in classroom observations, data interpretation, and feedback delivery.
Use of Evaluation Results
Guides decisions on teacher recognition, development, and policies to enhance student learning.
2. Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) in Higher Education
Introduction by UGC (2015):
Replaces marks/percentage system with a flexible, grade-based approach.
Promotes interdisciplinary learning and student mobility.
Key Features:
Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE):
Internal Assessment (40%):
Test (20 marks), Assignment (10 marks), Participation (5 marks), Conduct (5 marks).
Final Exam (60%).
Uniform Grading: Uses Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA).
Advantages:
Learner-centric; allows course flexibility and interdisciplinary choices.
Reduces student stress; ensures global compatibility.
Disadvantages:
Complex mark calculation; potential for student irresponsibility (course repeats).
Overburdens teachers; risks subjectivity in internal evaluation.
3. Computer-Based Testing (CBT)
Shift from Traditional to CBT:
Driven by cheating scandals and the need for accuracy in competitive exams.
Benefits:
Eliminates Bias: Automated grading reduces human error.
Flexibility & Accessibility: Wider test center availability and scheduling options.
Cost-Effective: Saves time/resources compared to paper-based exams.
Security: Prevents fraud (e.g., proxy testing).
Examples:
GRE: Pioneered CBT in the 1990s.
Indian Higher Ed: Increasing adoption for fairness and scalability.
4. Innovations in Evaluation Systems
| Method | Purpose | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Questionnaires | Assess student learning experiences and course improvements. | Pre/post-course surveys. |
| Student Interviews | Gather in-depth feedback via focus groups. | Mid-semester group discussions. |
| Learning Journals | Track student reflections and growth. | Reflective diaries on course content. |
| Socratic Wheel | Visual tool for goal-setting, progress tracking, and multi-criteria evaluation. | Rating learning outcomes. |
Unit 2 - Research Aptitude
1. Research: Meaning and Definitions
Meaning: Research is a careful, systematic study of a problem using scientific methods to find solutions.
Definitions:
Redman and Mory: “Systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
Webster: “Studious inquiry, critical investigation, or experimentation aimed at discovering new facts and their correct interpretation.”
JW Best: “A formal, systematic process using scientific methods, leading to documented procedures and results.”
2. Objectives of Research
Research aims to:
Gain familiarity with phenomena and gain new insights.
Determine frequency of occurrences.
Test hypotheses about cause-effect relationships.
Describe unexplained knowledge gaps.
Resolve contradictions and propose new theories.
Measure associations between variables.
Contribute to societal betterment.
3. Characteristics of Research
Objectivity: Free from biases; observations unaffected by the researcher’s beliefs.
Reliability: Similar results when repeated under similar conditions.
Validity: Accuracy in procedures and instruments; measures what it intends to measure.
Accuracy: Truthfulness in statements, avoiding exaggeration.
Credibility: Believability, with agreement between participants and researchers.
Systematisation: Organized data collection for reliable conclusions.
Empirical: Based on direct observation or experience.
Logical: Follows valid procedures and principles.
Cyclical: Begins with a problem, finds solutions, and leads to new problems.
Analytical: Uses proven methods (historical, descriptive, experimental, case study).
Critical: Involves careful and precise judgments.
Methodological: Conducted systematically without bias.
Replicability: Repeatable procedures for valid conclusions.
Types of Research (Classification)
Classification of Research
Research is categorized into four main types for better understanding:
Objective-Based Research
Focuses on specific objectives or goals.
Subtypes:
Descriptive Research: Explores “what is” or “what was” (e.g., surveys).
Correlational Research: Measures relationships between variables.
Explanatory Research: Explains causes and effects.
Exploratory Research: Addresses undefined problems.
Experimental Research: Tests cause-effect relationships through variable manipulation.
Application-Based Research
Classified by practical utility:
Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research: Develops theories without immediate application.
Applied Research: Solves real-world problems (e.g., medical treatments).
Logic-Based Research
Defined by reasoning approach:
Deductive Research: Tests hypotheses derived from theories (general → specific).
Inductive Research: Develops theories from observed patterns (specific → general).
Formation/Interaction-Based Research
Differs in structure and interaction:
Unstructured Research: Spontaneous, non-quantitative exploration (e.g., studying food diversity).
Structured Research: Systematic data collection using predefined methods (e.g., coded observations).
Other Notable Types
Ex-post Facto Research: Analyzes pre-existing groups based on traits (quasi-experimental).
Historical Research: Studies past events to understand present/future trends.
Analytical Research: Evaluates cause-effect relationships using existing data.
1. Objective-Based Research
Definition: Research free from bias, uncovering truthful outcomes.
Classification:
Descriptive Research
Correlational Research
Explanatory Research
Exploratory Research
Experimental Research
2. Descriptive Research
Purpose: Finds out “what is” or “what was” without altering the environment.
Characteristics:
Researcher has no control over variables.
Linked to ex-post facto, historical, and analytical research.
Applications:
Ex-post Facto Research:
Systematic inquiry into dependent/independent variables without random assignment.
Example: Studying self-esteem levels in adults grouped by body weight (underweight, normal, overweight).
Historical Research:
Critical inquiry into past events to understand present/future trends.
Examples:
Solutions for tribal community betterment in India.
Tracing reasons for violence in West Asia.
3. Analytical Research
Focus: Cause-effect relationships using existing data.
Purpose: Tests hypotheses and evaluates material critically.
Examples:
Reducing customer complaints.
Decreasing employee absenteeism.
4. Correlational Research
Purpose: Measures association between quantifiable variables (ordinal scale or higher).
Types:
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase/decrease together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Example: Relationship between academic success and self-esteem (cannot prove causation).
5. Explanatory Research
Purpose: Explains unexplored problems, tests/extends theories.
Examples:
Why computers with more RAM are faster.
Why migratory birds move to specific regions in certain seasons.
6. Exploratory Research
Purpose: Addresses poorly defined problems; generates hypotheses.
Uses:
Defines problems precisely.
Identifies key variables/relationships.
Gains insights before developing approaches.
Example: Studying alcoholism in India to hypothesize relaxation as a reason.
7. Experimental Research
Purpose: Studies cause-effect by manipulating variables.
Example: Impact of education, skills, and experience (independent variables) on salary (dependent variable).
II. Application-Based Research
Purpose: Solves practical problems affecting life, work, health, and well-being.
Types:
Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research:
Develops or refines theories without immediate practical application.
Examples:
Study on gender differences in depression rates.
Impact of caffeine on the brain.
Influence of family environment on child socialization.
Applied Research:
Solves specific real-world problems (e.g., medicine, business, education).
Examples:
Treating diseases like anxiety/depression.
Motivational strategies for charity participation.
Encouraging creative deviance in employees.
Differences:
| Fundamental Research | Applied Research |
|---|---|
| Develops new theories (inductive). | Solves organizational problems (deductive). |
| Qualitative in nature. | Quantitative in nature. |
| Also called “basic/pure research.” | Also called “action research.” |
III. Logic-Based Research
Types:
Deductive Research:
Tests hypotheses derived from existing theories (general → specific).
Steps:
State hypothesis.
Collect data.
Accept/reject hypothesis.
Example: Hypothesis linking weak law enforcement to low employment rates.
Drawback: Unsuited for students lacking abstract reasoning.
Inductive Research:
Develops theories from observed patterns (specific → general).
Steps:
Observe phenomena.
Identify patterns.
Formulate theory.
Example: Theory linking parental expectations to teen depression post-exam results.
Drawback: Risk of incorrect generalizations from insufficient data.
IV. Formation/Interaction/Inquiry-Based Research
Definition: Depends on researcher-participant interaction (direct/indirect).
Types:
Unstructured Research:
Spontaneous exploration of non-predetermined problems.
Examples:
Food diversity across India.
Voters’ political party choices.
Career preferences of specific age groups.
Structured Research (Systematic Observation):
Predefined, procedural data collection using coding methods.
Example: Coding toddlers’ helping behaviors (e.g., sharing toys, aiding injured peers).
Positivism and Post-Positivism Approaches
1. Positivism
Founder: Auguste Comte (“Father of Positivism”).
Key Works: The Course in Positive Philosophy (1842), System of Positive Polity (1851).
Core Belief: The universe operates via unchangeable natural laws, understandable through scientific methods (analysis, synthesis, application, classification).
Focuses only on observable/measurable events (no imagination/theological explanations).
Emphasizes quantitative methods.
Steps in Positivist Research:
Select a study topic.
Collect observable evidence.
Classify evidence systematically.
Draw conclusions.
Characteristics of Positivism:
Social events follow natural laws, identifiable via science.
Aligns with scientific methodology and objectivity.
Rejects religious/philosophical ideas.
Aims for social reconstruction using empirical knowledge.
2. Post-Positivism
Core Belief: Combines empirical observation with logical reasoning to estimate events.
No fundamental difference between scientific logic and everyday reasoning.
Recognizes observation instability and potential errors.
Truth is pursued via correct methods, even if not fully achieved.
Key Developments in Post-Positivism:
Use of both quantitative and qualitative strategies.
Research design driven by research questions.
Balances quantitative vs. qualitative techniques.
Contrast with Positivism:
Positivism: Strictly scientific, quantitative, objective.
Post-Positivism: Flexible, accepts qualitative data, acknowledges subjectivity.
Steps of Research
Formulating Research Problem
Steps:
Select a broad research area (e.g., childhood nutrition).
Dissect into sub-areas (e.g., malnutrition, child immunization).
Focus on areas of interest.
Generate research questions (answerable via scientific methods).
Define objectives (specific/general answers to research questions).
Finalize problem statement (declarative/interrogative).
Reviewing the Research Structure
Provides foundational knowledge about past studies, methodologies, and conclusions.
Conducting Literature Review
Uses secondary data (books, journals, online articles) to ensure originality of the research problem.
Developing Hypothesis
Bias-free statement guiding the research scope and direction.
Preparation of Research Design
Definition (Russel Ackoff): Decisions made before research execution.
Key Aspects:
Data collection tools (primary/secondary).
Objectives, data analysis (qualitative/quantitative).
Time, cost, and flexibility considerations.
Purpose: Enhances efficiency, reliability, and resource optimization.
Collection of Data
Primary Data: Interviews, fieldwork, observations.
Secondary Data: Books, newspapers, online portals.
Execution of Project
Implements research design and plans data analysis.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Identifies patterns and critically examines data to meet objectives.
Concluding and Report Writing
Generalizations: Based on data analysis, not personal opinions.
Report Format:
Abstract/Synopsis
Introduction
Literature Review
Methodology
Results
Discussions
Conclusions
Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendices
Methods of Research
1. Qualitative Research Method
Definition: Naturalistic inquiry focusing on “why” of social phenomena in their natural settings.
Key Philosophers: Immanuel Kant, William Dithery, Edmund Husserl, Maurice Merleu-Ponty.
Techniques:
In-depth Interview: One-on-one interviews (face-to-face/phone/mail) to gather precise data on beliefs/motivations.
Focus Group: 6–12 respondents to explore “why,” “what,” and “how” without direct interaction.
Ethnographic Research: Studies sociocultural phenomena in natural environments; time-consuming and expertise-dependent.
Text/Content Analysis: Decodes words/images from documents/films to simplify content characteristics.
Phenomenology: Examines lived experiences without theoretical assumptions.
2. Historical Study/Method
Purpose: Evaluates past data to explain present/future events, test hypotheses, and understand educational theories.
Steps:
Select a problem.
Set problem limits.
Formulate hypotheses.
Collect/authenticate data.
Discuss results.
3. Quantitative Research Method
Definition: Structured data collection/analysis using statistical tools to quantify problems.
Features:
Uses surveys/experiments for cause-effect analysis.
Reliable (numerical data), unbiased, and accurate.
4. Experimental Method
Definition: Manipulates variables to observe effects, testing hypotheses systematically.
Constraints: Human behavior variability, high cost, and time-intensive.
5. Descriptive Research Method
Definition: Describes population/phenomenon characteristics (“what” not “why”).
Types:
Observation Method: Direct viewing of natural settings (vs. controlled experiments).
Survey Method:
Cross-sectional: One-time data from a sample.
Longitudinal: Data collected over time.
Tools: Personal/telephonic interviews, mailed questionnaires.
Case Study Method: In-depth study of a single entity (individual/group) using multiple data sources (observations, interviews, records).
Tools of Research
Research Paper
Academic writing based on analysis, interpretation, and findings.
Requires locating information, taking a stand, and providing evidence.
Scholarly articles undergo peer review before publication.
Workshop
Interactive session involving clients, researchers, and participants.
Includes qualitative research, brainstorming, and problem-solving.
Larger groups with multiple moderators.
Seminar
Group discussion on specific techniques/topics.
Academic instruction with active participation.
Uses visual materials, interactive tools, and demonstrations.
Conference
Formal meeting for exchanging views (academic/non-academic).
Examples: Parent-teacher, trade, journalist, research scholar conferences.
Platform for expert information exchange.
Symposium
Formal academic gathering with expert presentations.
Focuses on a single topic; lectures completed in one day.
Smaller scale than conferences.
Thesis Writing
Document for obtaining academic degrees (postgraduate level).
Original work under professor supervision.
Requires critical analysis and new findings.
Thesis Format and Styles
A. Front Matter
Title Page: Thesis title, author’s name, supervisor, place, date.
Abstract: 100–150 words summarizing problem, methodology, results, conclusion.
Table of Contents: Headings/subheadings with page numbers.
List of Figures/Tables: Figure/table numbers, titles, and page numbers.
Nomenclature (Optional): Terms, symbols, acronyms.
B. Body
Introduction: Purpose, problem background, approach, success criteria.
Theory: Theoretical basis, governing equations (detailed calculations in appendix).
Materials/Apparatus/Procedures: Descriptions with illustrations.
Results: Data presentation (tables/graphs), accuracy assessment.
Discussion: Result significance, comparison with theory, unexpected findings.
Conclusions: Review of results vs. problem statement.
Recommendations: Future work directions.
C. End Matter
Acknowledgements: Credits to advisors, sponsors, colleagues.
Appendixes: Detailed calculations/data (titled Appendix A, B, C).
Bibliography: Alphabetical list of referenced works (follow department guidelines).
Article Writing
Definition: A detailed account of research activity, focused on a specific topic (unlike a research paper bound by methodology).
Purpose: Provides detailed information on a particular subject.
Format and Styles:
Front Matter:
Title Page: Includes article title and author’s name (must be informative with keywords).
Abstract: 100–150 words summarizing research problem, methodology, key results, and conclusion.
Body:
Introduction: States study’s purpose, theoretical framework, problem statement, and hypothesis.
Methodology: Describes sample selection, materials (equipment/apparatus), and procedures.
Results: Presents findings with text, tables, and graphs; assesses accuracy/patterns.
Discussion:
Non-technical result interpretation.
Links results to hypotheses and study goals.
Explains outcome reasons, identifies limitations, and suggests future research.
End Matter:
References: Lists sources (journals, books, websites, theses).
Application of ICT in Research
Definition: Use of digital technologies to enhance research processes.
Key Roles:
Identifies information sources.
Facilitates critical analysis and effective research.
Manages/communicates knowledge across fields.
Enables simultaneous database searches (up to 10), standardized results, and alerts.
Computer’s Role in Research Phases:
Literature Review:
Searches electronic databases (e.g., World Wide Web) for bibliographic references.
Stores published articles for retrieval.
Sample Size Calculation:
Uses software (e.g., NCSS-PASS-GESS) to determine sample size based on pilot study data.
Empirical Phase:
Data Collection/Preparation: Stores data in Word/Excel for easy editing and management.
Data Entry: Converts questionnaire data into digital formats (e.g., spreadsheets) for analysis.
Data Analysis Phase:
Performs statistical calculations using specialized software.
- Role of Computers in Research Dissemination Phase
- Function: Publishing research studies by converting articles to Portable Data Format (PDF) for storage/sharing on the World Wide Web.
Research Ethics
Definition: Framework of values, norms, and regulations governing scientific research involving human participants.
Objectives:
Protect human participants (especially vulnerable groups: children, disabled, institutionalized individuals, homeless).
Ensure research serves societal/individual interests.
Assess ethical soundness of projects (risk management, confidentiality, informed consent).
Emerging Concerns:
Research in developing countries.
Use of genetic material.
Privacy protection with advancing technology.
Components of Ethical Research:
Voluntary Participation:
Requires informed consent (written documentation).
Participants must understand procedures and potential risks.
No Harm to Subjects:
Minimize physical, psychological, or social harm.
Confidentiality:
Guarantee participant autonomy, privacy, and dignity.
Unit 3 - Communication
This is in the process.
